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Ratlines (World War II)

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High-ranking fascists and Nazis who escaped from Europe via the ratlines after World War II: Ante Pavelić, Adolf Eichmann and Josef Mengele

The ratlines (German: Rattenlinien) were systems of escape routes used by German Nazis and other fascists to flee Europe from 1945 onwards in the aftermath of World War II. These routes mainly led toward havens in South America – particularly Argentina – in addition to Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay. Some escapees also settled at the various transfer points or used them to flee elsewhere.

Two primary routes from Germany to South America developed independently with their operators eventually collaborating; the first transferred through Spain and the second through Rome and Genoa. The ratlines were supported by some clergy of the Catholic Church, such as Austrian bishop Alois Hudal and Croatian priest Krunoslav Draganović, as well as some outlets of the International Committee of the Red Cross. The Nazis paid Argentine officials (starting c. 1943) to shield their agents, bolstering the rise of Juan Perón, whose regime set up additional ratlines through Scandinavia and Switzerland.

Starting in 1947, the United States utilized Draganović's network and an official at the International Refugee Organization to help Gestapo leader Klaus Barbie (who was in their custody in occupied Austria) flee to Bolivia. Details of the ratlines have continued to be released up to eight decades after WWII.

Overview

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Two primary routes developed independently but their operators eventually collaborated.[1] The first went from Germany to Spain, then Argentina; the second led from Germany to Rome, then Genoa, and finally South America. As many as 9,000 Nazi war criminals and their collaborators reportedly escaped to Argentina (up to 5,000),[2] Brazil (up to 2,000), and Chile (up to 1,000).[3] Some refugees immersed themselves in Latin America by pretending to be farmers and/or Catholic.[4]

Francoist Spain

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The origins of the first ratlines are connected to various developments in Vatican-Argentina relations before and during World War II.[5] As early as 1942, the Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Luigi Maglione – evidently at the behest of Pope Pius XII – contacted an ambassador of Argentina regarding that country's willingness to accept European Catholic immigrants in a timely manner, allowing them to live and work.[6] Anton Weber, a German priest who headed the Roman branch of Saint Raphael's Society [de], travelled to Portugal with the intention to travel to Argentina, seemingly to lay the groundwork for Catholic immigration.[6]

Some Catholic leaders decided to work with the Nazis in an attempt to fight against their common enemy which was Bolshevism. By 1944, ratline activity which was centered in Francoist Spain was conducted in an attempt to facilitate the escape of Nazis.[7] Among the primary organizers were Charles Lescat, a French member of Action Française – an organization suppressed by Pope Pius XI and rehabilitated by Pope Pius XII – and Pierre Daye, a Belgian with contacts in the Spanish government.[8] Lescat and Daye were the first to flee from Europe with the assistance of the Argentinian cardinal Antonio Caggiano.[8]

By 1946, hundreds of war criminals were living in Spain, as well as thousands of former Nazis and fascists.[9] According to U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, Vatican cooperation in turning over these "asylum-seekers" was "negligible".[9] Unlike the Vatican emigration operation in Italy which centered on Vatican City, the Spanish ratlines – though fostered by the Vatican – were relatively independent of the Vatican Emigration Bureau's hierarchy.[10]

Italian ratlines

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See also: Aunt Anna's and Pontificia Commissione di Assistenza

Bishop Hudal's network

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Austrian Catholic bishop Alois Hudal, a Nazi sympathiser, was rector of the Pontificio Istituto Teutonico Santa Maria dell'Anima in Rome, a seminary for Austrian and German priests, and "Spiritual Director of the German People resident in Italy".[11] After the end of the war in Italy, Hudal became active in ministering to German-speaking prisoners of war and internees who were being held in camps throughout Italy. In December 1944, the Allies allowed the Vatican to appoint a representative to visit the German-speaking civil internees in Italy, a job assigned to Hudal.[12]

Hudal used this position to aid the escape of wanted Nazi war criminals, including Franz Stangl (commanding officer of the Treblinka extermination camp), Gustav Wagner (commanding officer of the Sobibor extermination camp), Alois Brunner (responsible for the Drancy internment camp near Paris and in charge of deportations in Slovakia to Nazi concentration camps), Erich Priebke (who was responsible for the Ardeatine massacre), and SS officer Adolf Eichmann (architect of the Holocaust); Hudal was later unashamedly open about his role.[13][14] Some of these wanted men were being held in internment camps; generally lacking identity papers, they would be enrolled in camp registers under false names. Other Nazis hid in Italy and sought Hudal out after learning about his role in assisting escapes.[15] In his memoirs, Hudal said of his actions, "I thank God that He [allowed me] to visit and comfort many victims in their prisons and concentration camps and to help them escape with false identity papers."[16] He explained that in his eyes:

The Allies' War against Germany was not a crusade, but the rivalry of economic complexes for whose victory they had been fighting. This so-called business ... used catchwords like democracy, race, religious liberty and Christianity as a bait for the masses. All these experiences were the reason why I felt duty bound after 1945 to devote my whole charitable work mainly to former National Socialists and Fascists, especially to so-called 'war criminals'.

According to Mark Aarons and John Loftus, Hudal was the first Catholic priest to dedicate himself to establishing escape routes.[17] The Rome office of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) issued refugees Laissez-passer documents allowing passage from Italy. These were accepted as de facto passports in South America.[18] Although typically required to be signed for in person, blank forms were accessible to Hudal and the signature of the ICRC official was confirmed to be forged in a number of cases.[18]

Croatian Franciscans

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A travel ID issued to a Croatian national by the International Committee of the Red Cross

A small but influential network of Croatian Franciscan priests led by Father Krunoslav Draganović organised a highly sophisticated ratline with headquarters at the San Girolamo degli Illirici Seminary College in Rome, with links from Austria and an embarkation point in Genoa. The ratline initially focused on aiding members of the Croatian Ustaše including its leader, Ante Pavelić.[19]

A number of priests participated, included Father Vilim Cecelja (former Deputy Military Vicar to the Ustaše),[20] who founded a branch of the Croatian Red Cross in Austria (which the IRC only supported in an unofficial capacity). He used his Red Cross and United States papers to travel freely around Salzburg, where many Ustashe and Nazi refugees remained, providing Red Cross identities to numerous individuals who lacked identification. In October 1945, Cecelja was arrested by the U.S. Army's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) for his Ustaše ties.[21] Father Dominik Mandić (an official Vatican representative at San Girolamo and treasurer of the Franciscans), used his Italian secret police connections to ensure that the Franciscans' identity cards would be considered sufficiently official to issue them Italian identity cards.[22] Finally, Draganović would phone Monsignor Karlo Petranović in Genoa with the number of required berths on ships to South America.[23]

The Draganović ratline was an open secret among the intelligence and diplomatic communities in Rome. As early as August 1945, Allied commanders in Rome were asking questions about the use of San Girolamo as a "haven" for Ustaše.[24] A U.S. State Department report of 12 July 1946 listed nine war criminals, including Albanians and Montenegrins as well as Croats, plus others "not actually sheltered" at San Girolamo Seminary who "enjoy Church support and protection".[25]

In February 1947, CIC Special Agent Robert Clayton Mudd reported ten members of Pavelić's Ustaše cabinet living either in San Girolamo or in the Vatican itself. Mudd had infiltrated an agent into the seminary and confirmed that it was "honeycombed with cells of Ustashe operatives" guarded by "armed youths". Mudd reported a car protected under diplomatic immunity transported unidentified people between the Vatican and the seminary.[26] Additionally, by mid-1947, British intelligence was aware that Petranović mainly helped war criminals.[23]

Nordic shelter

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Main article: Pro-German resistance movement in Finland
Pro-Nazi industrialist Petter Forsström

In 1944, Sturmbannführer (Major) Alarich Bross founded a network of collaborationist Finns and Nazis in Finland. Organized to engage in an armed struggle against the Soviet occupation that never occurred, it smuggled out those who wanted to leave Finland for Germany or Sweden. A system of Finnish safehouses were created under the cover of a company called 'Great Fishing Cooperative' with routes provided by a 50–70-man maritime transport organization. Its targets in Sweden were secret loading bays in the small town of Härnösand, western Norrland. Others were smuggled to Sweden from the north over the Tornio river. Access to Europe was opened through the Swedish safehouse network.[27]

Through the safehouse routes, the resistance movement transported German citizens, officers, intelligence personnel, Finnish Nazis and fascists, and Estonian and East Karelian refugees out of Finland. Hundreds of people were assisted in Sweden, including more than a hundred German prisoners of war who had fled the Finns. Hundreds were spirited to Germany via U-boat after the September 1944 break.[28][27] In 1946, Finnish industrialist Petter Forsström was convicted of treason for helping Nazis flee from Finland to Sweden, for instance by buying them motorboats.[29][30]

Argentine haven

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See also: Argentina during World War II, Department 50, and Operation Bolívar

The Nazis had a presence in Argentina before the war, peaking with 2,110 members in 1935.[31] At some point, German-Argentine millionaire Ludwig Freude, who oversaw Buenos Aires's German Overseas Bank (a subsidiary of Deutsche Bank), established contacts with Swiss banks.[32][33][34] An early 1940s investigation ordered by anti-Nazi president Roberto Marcelino Ortiz identified 12,000 Nazi sympathizers in Argentina, many of whom had contributed some USD $40.5 million (2025 currency) to a single account at Schweizerische Kreditanstalt (later acquired by Credit Suisse).[32][33][34][31] The Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC) theorized c. 2020 that funds derived from Nazi plunder was sent to the listed Nazi supporters for deposit in the Swiss account, which Nazi Germany could withdraw in exchangeable, non-German currency.[35]

In June 1941, Germany sent 83 boxes of documents from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan, via the MS Nana Maru to Buenos Aires.[36][37] Customs agents impounded the boxes, which were searched by Argentina's foreign ministry. Five boxes contained Nazi propaganda hidden amid material labeled as "scientific, literary and cultural",[33] while the others housed mostly children's books, magazines and war photographs. A month later, Argentine officials raided the secret offices of the banned Nazi Party (disguised as German labor organizations). Perhaps 5,000 seized memberships from the German Labor Front and the German trade union association were stored by the Supreme Court of Argentina.[37] In May 1943, SS functionary Walter Schellenberg secured a secret agreement with the Argentine military that excluded Nazis from arrest in Argentina and established a diplomatic pouch exchange system between the two regimes. The Argentine nationalists conducted a coup d'état that June, opening a way for Juan Perón's rise to power.[38] Meanwhile, German wealth derived from looting Holocaust victims was placed in a Reichsbank account under the false name of Max Heiliger.[39] By 1944, this was worth millions of Reichsmarks, in addition to shipments to the Reich Chancellery headquarters of Martin Bormann.[40] SS officer Otto Skorzeny facilitated the international transfer of wealth from the account, reportedly depositing it in the name of Perón's future wife, Eva.[40]

U-530's crew was probed about their potential complicity.

After Germany's surrender on 8 May 1945, the captain of U-530, then operating in the northern Atlantic Ocean, opted to surrender to the Argentine Navy in Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires Province, which occurred on 10 July.[41] He was unable to explain why the voyage had taken two months nor the absence of usual documents. The Navy reported that no officers were aboard, while the police purportedly reported that Adolf Hitler and perhaps Eva Braun had been seen disembarking from a submarine.[41] The captured U-boat and its crew were sent to North America, which did not discourage the U-977 from surrendering in Buenos Aires in mid-August in hopes of being sheltered.[42][a] According to The New York Times, the U.S. State Department reported in 1945 that "the personal fortunes of Nazi officials" were delivered to Buenos Aires via diplomatic pouch, with Nazi higher-up Hermann Göring possessing over USD $20 million and a U-boat loaded with Nazi loot.[44]

On 18 January 1946, Bishop Antonio Caggiano, leader of the Argentine chapter of Catholic Action, flew to Rome to be consecrated as cardinal by Pius XII. Both Caggiano and French cardinal Eugène Tisserant heavily interceded in helping Lescat and Daye and their associates emigrate from Spain to Argentina.[45][8] In early 1946, Caggiano implored the Argentine consul in Rome to stamp the passports of three confirmed French war criminals (and five other Frenchmen) with Argentine tourist visas, regardless of missing return tickets and health certificates.[46] The first documented case of a French war criminal arriving in Buenos Aires was Émile Dewoitine on 28 May 1946, after sailing first class on the same ship with Caggiano.[47][b]

Juan Perón (right), Dept. 50[c]

Perón's Argentina

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See also: Juan Perón § Jewish and German communities of Argentina

Reportedly aligned with Nazi intelligence, Ludwig Freude coordinated contributions from Nazi collaborators to Perón's 1946 presidential campaign.[50][44] Perón appointed anthropologist Santiago Peralta (an avowed anti-Semite) as his immigration commissioner and Ludwig's son Rodolfo Freude as the head of the country's first intelligence bureau;[51][44] the two Péron subordinates evidently aided European war criminals by streamlining their pathway to citizenship and employing them within their departments.[52] Péron's regime collaborated with Draganović's ratline and operated additional ratlines through Scandinavia and Switzerland.[53] As many as 5,000 Nazi war criminals escaped to Argentina,[3] some as late as 1950, the year Adolf Eichmann arrived.[54] Péron later stated that he helped as many Nazi officials as possible in a reaction to the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals (1945–1946), which he thought were a "disgrace".[4][55]

A toothbrush mustached man performing a Hitleresque Nazi salute, from Dept. 50's probe of Nazis in Latin America[56][57][58]

From the late 1940s to the 1950s, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) investigated reports that Hitler had not died in 1945, but escaped to South America – typically via Argentina, as the Soviets suggested after taking Berlin.[59][60] The CIA even received a purported photograph of Hitler in 1954.[61] According to Western scholars, the dictator's 1945 death is proven by his confirmed dental remains and eyewitnesses[59][62] – excluding the possibility of mandibulectomy and supporting deception.[63] The FBI and CIA began declassifying relevant files in 1999 in accordance with the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act and started to publish them online c. 2011.[64][65]

After entering Argentina under a false name, in the mid-1950s Josef Mengele (known as the "Angel of Death" due to his role in the Holocaust) reclaimed his surname to marry his brother's widow in Uruguay, then brought her to Argentina.[66] In 1959, he used his real name to apply for a passport at the German embassy in Buenos Aires. By 1960, he had fled to Paraguay (drawing the attention of the Argentine police), and c. 1963 authorities of Brazil suspected his presence. He died in Brazil in 1979, with his remains identified via DNA analysis in 1992.[67] The same year, Argentina's government declassified a voluminous file regarding Nazi escapees.[68] In the mid-1990s, Argentine president Carlos Menem created a commission to investigate the country's Nazi past. Its initial 1998 report claimed that Argentina had only received 150–180 Nazi criminals. The SWC dismissed this quantity as far too low and noted a lack of disclosures regarding alleged deposits of Nazi gold into the Central Bank of Argentina.[69][70]

In 2024, former U.S. prosecutor Neil Barofsky reported to the U.S. Senate Budget Committee that he had "identified client documents and other evidence that demonstrate a significant connection between Credit Suisse and one of the key [escape] routes", specifically concerning "funds required to operate the ratline, including to pay for bribes, false identification documents, and transportation".[33]

In early 2025, Argentine president Javier Milei met with representatives from the SWC, who requested in conjunction with the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee for cooperation in the latter's investigation of Credit Suisse's Nazi patronage.[71][72][2] Late in April 2025, Argentina published 1,850 such documents online (many of which had been declassified in 1992).[68] In May 2025, United Press International reported that these files indicate that the Nazis may have bribed Perón's government with $200 million in gold, some of which was allegedly delivered via U-boat before being delivered to Eva Perón.[73] The funds were reportedly handled by German "bankers" said to include Rodolfo Freude.[73] Milei's administration also provided the SWC (and Barofsky) with additional documents, including some from Fabricaciones Militares related to about USD $64.5 million (2025 currency) spent from 1945 to 1950 to finance national defense research and secret missions to Europe to hire unknown "technical personnel".[33]

Additionally, in May 2025 the Supreme Court of Argentina announced its discovery of a dozen boxes of archived material, which included thousands of party membership documents, as well as Nazi propaganda, passports, postcards, and photographs.[36][37][74] The court associated the boxes with those impounded from the MS Nana Maru in June 1941, but Argentine historian Julio Mutti pointed out that the party memberships seem instead to match the material confiscated during the July 1941 raids on Nazi offices in Argentina.[37] As of November 2025, these documents, said to total 6,000, were undergoing restoration and digital preservation for possible legal actions and public access.[37][74][33]

Role of U.S. intelligence

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See also: Operation Paperclip
SS-Obersturmführer Klaus Barbie

In April 1947, the 430th CIC, based in Allied-occupied Austria, began protecting Klaus Barbie, known as the "Butcher of Lyon" for his Gestapo leadership in Lyon, France. The French demanded Barbie's extradition in 1950, as rumors circulated that he had been employed by the 66th CIC (previously unaware that Barbie was being sheltered by the 430th).[75] Barbie gave the CIC access to knowledge about the French occupation zone in Germany, the Communist Party of Germany, and former SS officers.[76] Meanwhile, Barbie learned about the Austria-based Document Disposal Unit (DDU), a U.S. State Department intelligence unit led by CIA director Allen Dulles and staffed with Office of Strategic Services (OSS) men, also sometimes operating as War Department or OSS entities.[75][77] Fearing that France may have fallen to communism and wanted to extract CIC intel from Barbie,[76] the State Department claimed that he could not be found in the U.S. Zone of Austria, and by 1951, facilitated his escape via Draganović's route through Rome.[75][77] This ratline was reinforced by the DDU, which aimed to eliminate French and British control. Barbie settled in Bolivia and spent 33 years there before his arrest.[75][77]

The 430th reported in 1950 that in mid-1947, the Army instructed them to begin using Draganović's Roman network to evacuate some people out of Austria, supported by a U.S. official at the International Refugee Organization (IRO). The directive applied to:[78]

visitors who had been in the custody of the 430th CIC and completely processed in accordance with current directives and requirements, and whose continued residence in Austria constituted a security threat as well as a source of possible embarrassment to the Commanding General of [the U.S. Forces in Austria], since the Soviet Command had become aware [of] their presence in [the] US Zone of Austria and in some instances had requested the return of these persons to Soviet custody. ... [Draganović] handled all phases of the operation after the defectees arrived in Rome, such as the procurement of IRO Italian and South American documents, visas, stamps, arrangements for disposition, land or sea, and notification of resettlement committees in foreign lands.

After June 1951, the 430th was no longer responsible for aiding ratline escapees, which the CIA was then slated to perform.[79] Former SS officer Tscherim Soobzokov was enlisted as a CIA spy early in the Cold War to gain intel from Soviet-aligned contacts in the Middle East. He moved to the U.S. and later worked for the FBI.[80]

Ratline escapees

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Nazis and war criminals who escaped using the ratlines include:

  • Andrija Artuković (Ustaše official) entered the U.S. as a tourist c. 1948.[81] After decades of overstaying his visa and resulting legal battles, he was arrested in 1984 and extradited to SFR Yugoslavia in 1986, where he died in prison in 1988.[81]
  • Klaus Barbie (SS officer) was sheltered by the CIC from April 1947 and fled to Bolivia in 1951 with help from the U.S.[75] In 1983, he was extradited to France,[75] where he died in prison in 1991.[82]
  • Alois Brunner (SS officer) fled to Syria, where he died perhaps as late as 2010.[83]
  • László Csatáry (Nazi collaborator) fled to Canada. His citizenship was stripped in 1997 and he fled, but was placed under house arrest in 2012. He died the next year while awaiting trial.[84]
  • Herberts Cukurs (Nazi collaborator) fled to Brazil by 1946.[85] He was assassinated by Mossad agents in Uruguay in 1965.[86]
  • Léon Degrelle (SS officer) intended to flee to South America in 1945, but his escape plane crashed at the Spain rendezvous. He was detained, but fled his hospital in 1946 while recovering.[87] He died in Spain in 1994.[88]
  • Adolf Eichmann (SS officer) fled to Argentina in 1950.[54] He was captured in 1960[89] and executed in Israel on 1 June 1962.[90]
  • Aribert Heim (SS doctor) fled Germany in 1962 and most likely died in Egypt in 1992.[91]
  • Friedrich Kadgien (Nazi collaborator) escaped with loot to Switzerland in 1945, later going to Brazil and around 1950 Buenos Aires, where he died in 1978.[92]
  • Olavi Karpalo (SS volunteer) fled to Venezuela c. 1945, dying there in 1988.[93]
  • Aarne Kauhanen (Nazi collaborator) fled to Venezuela c. 1945. He was arrested in 1947 and died in 1949.[94]
  • Josef Mengele (SS officer) fled to Argentina in 1949, then to Paraguay around 1960 and then Brazil, where he died in 1979.[67]
  • Arvid Ojasti (Nazi collaborator) fled to Norway in 1945, then Sweden, and finally Venezuela. In December 1963, he was shot and killed under unclear circumstances.[94][95]
  • Ante Pavelić (founder of the Ustaše) escaped to Argentina in 1948,[96] surviving an assassination attempt in 1957, then moved to Spain, where he died from his wounds.[97]
  • Erich Priebke (SS officer) fled to Argentina c. 1948 and was arrested there in 1994.[98] In 2013, he died at the age of 100 during his house arrest in Rome.[99]
  • Walter Rauff (SS officer) fled to Ecuador then Chile, where he was shielded by dictator Augusto Pinochet and where he died in 1984.[100]
  • Eduard Roschmann (SS officer) escaped to Argentina in 1948, then to Paraguay, where he died in 1977.[101]
  • Hans-Ulrich Rudel (Nazi pilot) fled to Argentina in 1948 and aided other fugitives.[102] He later moved to Paraguay[103] and died in Germany in 1982.[104]
  • Dinko Šakić (Ustaše official) fled to Spain then Argentina in 1947.[105][106] He was arrested in 1998 and extradited to Croatia.[107] He was sentenced to 20 years in prison for war crimes and crimes against humanity.[108] He died in 2008.[109]
  • Otto Skorzeny (SS officer) escaped an internment camp in 1948[110] and fled to Spain.[111] He made many trips to Argentina, serving as a bodyguard for Eva Perón. He died in Spain in 1975.[112]
  • Boris Smyslovsky (Nazi collaborator) fled to Argentina in 1948 from neutral Liechtenstein, where he later returned and died in 1988.[113]
  • Franz Stangl (SS officer) fled to Syria in 1948 then Brazil in 1951. He was arrested in 1967 and extradited to West Germany, where he died in 1971.[114]
  • Ludolf von Alvensleben (SS officer) fled to Argentina c. 1946. Although Poland sentenced him to death in absentia, he evaded justice by remaining in Argentina until his death in 1970.[115][116]
  • Gustav Wagner (SS officer) fled to Brazil in 1950 and was arrested there in 1978.[117] The country refused to extradite him and he committed suicide in 1980.[118]
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Fictional works about the ratlines include a novel by Stuart Neville and stories based on Hitler's alleged escape and/or the hypothetical ODESSA organization.

Since late 2024, the ratlines have sometimes been satirically invoked by comedians in relation to U.S. president Donald Trump, a Milei ally. After Trump claimed that his father had told him never to say "Nazi" or "Hitler",[d] Stephen Colbert joked that Trump had only been told not to take Hitler's name in vain or he would have to put money in a swear jar for his "uncles in Argentina".[125] In early 2025, after Trump declared that the U.S. would supply $20 billion or $40 billion to Argentina, Colin Jost jested that Trump administration officials might be preparing to flee there.[126][127]

See also

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References

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Footnotes

  1. ^ U-977's captain twice asserted in his 1952 book that U-530 arrived earlier than its surrender, even claiming that this occurred while Hitler was still alive.[43]
  2. ^ In 1948, France sentenced Dewoitine in absentia to 20 years of hard labour.[47]
  3. ^ Many photographed subjects in Chile's anti-Nazi investigation demonstrate no awareness of a camera—possibly implying the use of hidden devices.[48][49]
  4. ^ Trump's father, Fred Trump, was pictured (in some photographic manipulations) with a toothbrush mustache from c. 1935 to 1950, about when it fell out of fashion due to associations with Hitler.[119][120] Fred made false claims about his birthtown, while Donald transplanted him to Germany[121][122] and reportedly alluded to him as the biggest German soldier of all time.[123][124]

Citations

  1. ^ Phayer 2008, p. 173.
  2. ^ a b Stub, Zev (26 March 2025). "Argentina to declassify documents about Nazi 'ratline' escape routes after WWII". The Times of Israel. ISSN 0040-7909. Retrieved 15 September 2025.
  3. ^ a b Klein, Christopher (12 November 2015). "How South America Became a Nazi Haven". History.com. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
  4. ^ a b "The Perfect Hideout: Jewish and Nazi havens in Latin America". The Wiener Holocaust Library. pp. 1, 7. Retrieved 19 July 2025.
  5. ^ Phayer 2008, pp. 173–79.
  6. ^ a b Phayer 2008, p. 179.
  7. ^ Phayer 2008, p. 180.
  8. ^ a b c Phayer 2008, p. 182.
  9. ^ a b Phayer 2008, p. 183.
  10. ^ Phayer 2008, p. 188.
  11. ^ Aarons & Loftus 1998, p. 36.
  12. ^ Dear, Ian (2010) [1997]. Escape and Evasion: POW Breakouts and Other Great Escapes in World War Two. Stroud: History. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-7524-5581-5.
  13. ^ Agnew, Paddy. "Nazi funeral that's forcing Italy to face its past". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
  14. ^ Phayer 2000, p. 11.
  15. ^ Sereny 1983, p. 289.
  16. ^ Hudal, Römische Tagebücher (Aarons & Loftus 1998, p. 37)
  17. ^ Aarons & Loftus 1998, ch. 2.
  18. ^ a b Sereny 1983, pp. 315–317.
  19. ^ Aarons & Loftus 1998, ch. 5.
  20. ^ Aarons & Loftus 1998, pp. 91, 98–99.
  21. ^ Aarons & Loftus 1998, pp. 92–93.
  22. ^ Aarons & Loftus 1998, pp. 100.
  23. ^ a b Aarons & Loftus 1998, pp. 106–107.
  24. ^ "Krunoslav Draganovic - From Pavelic-Papers.com". Domovod.info. 13 June 2012. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  25. ^ "The Pavelic Papers: Documents" (PDF). Krajinaforce.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  26. ^ Avraham, Yerachmiel Ben (2016). All in the Name of Jesus: The Murder of Millions. WaveCloud Corporation. p. 237. ISBN 9781622176342. Mudd's conclusion was the following: 'DRAGANOVIC's sponsorship of these Croat Ustashes definitely links him up with the plan of the Vatican to shield these ex-Ustasha nationalists until such time as they are able to procure for them the proper documents to enable them to go to South America. The Vatican, undoubtedly banking on the strong anti-Communist feelings of these men, is endeavoring to infiltrate them into South America in any way possible to counteract the spread of Red doctrine. It has been reliably reported, for example that Dr. VRANCIC has already gone to South America and that Ante PAVELIC and General KREN are scheduled for an early departure to South America through Spain. All these operations are said to have been negotiated by DRAGANOVIC because of his influence in the Vatican.'
  27. ^ a b Lappalainen 1997, pp. 111, 113–114.
  28. ^ Alava, Ali: Gestapo Suomessa. Hämeenlinna: Arvi A.Karisto Osakeyhtiö, 1974. ISBN 951-23-0844-4.
  29. ^ Lappalainen 1997, p. 110.
  30. ^ Pohjonen, Juha (2000). Maanpetturin tie. Maanpetoksesta Suomessa vuosina 1945–1972 tuomitut. Otava.
  31. ^ a b Filipuzzi, Pedro Alberto (2020). La Ruta del Dinero de los Nazis Argentinos: La Organización Nazi Unión Alemana de Gremios – Listado de miembros [The Money Trail of the Argentine Nazis: The Nazi Organization German Union of Guilds – List of members] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Editorial Dunken. p. 278. ISBN 978-987-85-0645-6.
  32. ^ a b Rosemberg, Jaime (2 March 2020). "Documento: la lista que revela el dinero de los nazis argentinos". La Nacion (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 November 2025.
  33. ^ a b c d e f Sivak, Martín (9 November 2025). "Credit Suisse, on the trail of the 'Nazi ratlines' in Argentina". EL PAÍS English. Retrieved 10 November 2025.
  34. ^ a b Rosemberg, Jaime (3 March 2020). "La dinastía Freude, entre Hitler, Perón y los millones de los nazis en la Argentina". La Nacion (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 November 2025.
  35. ^ Molina, Federico Rivas (3 March 2020). "Un documento oculto durante casi 80 años revela la ruta del dinero nazi desde Argentina". El País América (in Spanish). Retrieved 11 November 2025.
  36. ^ a b Vulcano, Andrea (11 May 2025). "Argentina's Supreme Court finds archives linked to the Nazi regime". AP News. Retrieved 14 May 2025.
  37. ^ a b c d e Miller, Leila (15 July 2025). "A Nazi document trove raises questions for Argentina". Reuters. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  38. ^ Goñi 2002, pp. 1, 16.
  39. ^ Kádár, Gábor; Vági, Zoltán (2004) [2001]. Self-Financing Genocide: The Gold Train, the Becher Case and the Wealth of Hungarian Jews. Budapest; New York: Central European University Press. pp. 118–19. ISBN 978-963-9241-53-4.
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Sources

Further reading

[edit]
  • Birn, Ruth Bettina. Review of Goñi, Uki, Odessa: Die wahre Geschichte: Fluchthilfe für NS-Kriegsverbrecher and Schneppen, Heinz, Odessa und das Vierte Reich: Mythen der Zeitgeschichte. H-Soz-u-Kult, H-Net Reviews. October, 2007.
  • Breitman, Richard; Goda, Norman J. W.; Naftali, Timothy; and Wolfe, Robert (2005). U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis. Cambridge University Press; ISBN 9780521617949.
  • Graham, Robert and Alvarez, David. (1998). Nothing Sacred: Nazi Espionage against the Vatican, 1939–1945. London: Frank Cass.
  • Loftus, John. (2010). America's Nazi Secret: An Insider's History. Waterwille: (Trine Day); ISBN 978-1936296040.
  • Simpson, Christopher (1988). Blowback: The First Full Account of America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Disastrous Effect on The cold war, Our Domestic and Foreign Policy. New York: (Grove/Atlantic); ISBN 978-0020449959.
  • Steinacher, Gerald (2006). The Cape of Last Hope: The Flight of Nazi War Criminals through Italy to South America, in Eisterer, Klaus and Günter Bischof (eds; 2006) Transatlantic Relations: Austria and Latin America in the 19th and 20th Century (Transatlantica 1), pp. 203–24. New Brunswick: Transatlantica.
  • Steinacher, Gerald (2012; P/B edition). Nazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice. Oxford University Press; ISBN 978-0199642458.
  • Wiesenthal, Simon (1989). Justice not Vengeance. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0802112781
[edit]
  • Media related to National Socialism in South America at Wikimedia Commons
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