Liberalism in China
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| Liberalism in China |
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| Chinese liberalism | |||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 中國自由主義 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 中国自由主义 | ||||||||
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| Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 中國自由派 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 中国自由派 | ||||||||
| Literal meaning | Chinese liberal groups | ||||||||
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Liberalism (simplified Chinese: 自由主义; traditional Chinese: 自由主義; pinyin: zìyóu zhǔyì) in Greater China is a development from classical liberalism as it was introduced into China during the later years of the Qing dynasty and the Republican period. It focuses more on individualism, rather than communitarianism; a common feature of conservatism in China. Prominent liberals were attacked in the early years of the People's Republic of China but liberal ideas became influential after the end of the Cultural Revolution.
In the People's Republic of China, liberal thought covers a significant range of intellectual currents. Among others, varieties of liberal thought in the PRC include the liberal Marxists of the 1980s and the neoliberals of the 1990s.
History
[edit]Some scholars see a liberal tradition in Confucian thought.[1] However, Confucian thought is generally more closely related to the Chinese conservatism.
Taoism and Laozi philosophy are similar to today's liberalism and libertarianism. James A. Dorn wrote that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony."[2]
Republic of China
[edit]
Classical liberalism was introduced into China during the later years of the Qing dynasty and the Republican period.[3]
In the years leading up to the Republic of China in 1912, thinkers such as Yan Fu and Liang Qichao translated works of John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many others. These writers had a cumulative effect, as did the ascendancy of liberalism in world powers like Britain, France and the United States. The establishment of a republic signaled the acceptance (at least in principle) of these models and the liberal values with which they identified, such as constitutionalism and the separation of powers.
The writings of Liang Qichao (1873–1929) played a major role, despite his leanings to a conservative outlook in latter years. The New Culture Movement (1915) and its immediate successor the May Fourth Movement (1919) initially were strongly liberal in character, with key figures like Hu Shih (1891–1962) as the preeminent exponent of liberal values.[4] Other important liberals were Zhang Dongsun (1886–1973) and Zhang Junmai (1887–1969).
With the rise of the Chinese Communist Revolution and increasing military pressure from Japan, liberalism underwent a steep decline, and by the 1930s, it was largely overshadowed by the more authoritarian ideals represented by the both the Chinese Communist Party (Maoism) and the Kuomintang (Chiangism). Many liberals left China during this period, including rural reformer James Yen and university president Chiang Monlin. Despite this, there were still some prominent scholars espousing the benefits of liberalism, such as Chu Anping, Fei Xiaotong, and Tao Xingzhi.
In 1947, the Constitution of the Republic of China was formally adopted. Under the new constitution, elections were held for the National Assembly and, in the following year, for the Legislative Yuan and the presidency.
People's Republic of China
[edit]In the People's Republic of China, liberal thought covers a significant range of intellectual currents.[5]: 9 Among others, varieties of liberal thought in the PRC include the liberal Marxists of the 1980s (who opposed ultra-leftism and supported a reformist socialism) and the neoliberals of the 1990s (who sought market reform and contended that this would necessarily increase political rights).[5]: 9 Academic Hang Tu summarizes, "[A] common thread that runs through these heterogenous intellectual dynamics is the call for the condemnation of Mao's revolutionary legacy in particular and the abandonment of radical approaches to Chinese history and politics in general."[5]: 9
Maoist era
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| Chinese political thought |
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The ascendancy of Mao Zedong and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 brought the liberal impulse to its lowest level. Ideological attacks were organized against the followers of Hu Shih,[6] and their values were ceaselessly derided as bourgeois delusions which could only weaken the nation.
Late 1970s-1980s
[edit]Liberal ideas increased their influence in China after the end of the Cultural Revolution.[7] In the late 1970s, liberalism developed as a loose intellectual faction including proponents of humanist Marxism, critics of the government, and humanist writers.[5]: 85 These intellectuals generally sought to emphasize the cosmopolitan aspects of the May Fourth legacy in support of Deng Xiaoping's reforms.[5]: 85–86
After the end of the Mao-era, ideals like intellectual freedom, the separation of powers, civil society and the rule of law were reexamined in the light of the destruction wrought by the Chinese Communist Party which had been so vociferous in denigrating them. Starting in the Cultural Revolution, many younger people experienced virtual conversions to liberalism. This process was given further impetus by the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. The democracy movement espoused (however imperfectly) many liberal doctrines. Among the key figures were Wang Ruoshui (1926–2002), who while remaining a Marxist humanist reconfigured this doctrine along liberal lines,[8] and Liu Xiaobo (1955–2017), initially a literary critic, who broke with Marxism to combine existentialist themes with liberalism.[9][10]
Since the 1990s
[edit]In the 1990s the liberal wing of the remnant of the pro-democracy movement re-emerged following the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, including figures like Qin Hui,[11] Li Shenzhi,[12] Wang Yuanhua,[13] Zhu Xueqin, Xu Youyu, Liu Junning and many others. The writings of Gu Zhun (1915–1974) were rediscovered, providing evidence of a stubborn core of liberal values that the communist movement had failed to extinguish. Ranged against the liberals are the Chinese New Left and populist nationalism.[14]
After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, support among intellectuals support for cultural conservatism increased and support for liberal reform and liberal democracy decreased.[5]: 106–107 Support for separation of powers also decreased.[15]: 43 Post-crackdown, some liberals increasingly emphasized neoliberalism and the belief that the market was the most effective guarantor of political liberty.[5]: 86 Chinese liberalism itself tends to divide into market liberalism, impressed by the US as a political model and adhering to the doctrines of Hayek and other neoliberals, and left-liberalism, more aligned with European social democracy and the welfare state. These tendencies continue to develop in a state of tension.
Li Keqiang is viewed as a liberal in China's ruling elite, advocating for economic liberty.[16] Wang Yang is viewed as a liberal in China's ruling elite, representing a school of thought that advocates for gradual political liberalization.[17]
From the Chinese leftist perspective, Chinese liberalism places too great of an emphasis on elite experiences and memory and minimizes the experience of the underprivileged, for whom the socialist state brought improvements in standard of living and cultural dignity.[5]: 119-120
In Hong Kong
[edit]Liberalism in Hong Kong has become the driving force of the democratic movement since the 1980s which is mainly represented by the pro-democracy camp which strives for the universal suffrage, human rights and rule of law in Hong Kong. It is one of two major political ideologies of the Hong Kong, with the other being conservatism.
Prominent figures
[edit]See also
[edit]- Anarchism in China
- China Democracy Party (Taiwan)
- Chinese economic reform
- Chinese New Left
- Conservatism in China
- Democracy in China
- Democracy Party of China
- Feminism in China
- Human rights in China
- LGBTQ rights in China
- List of Chinese dissidents
- Neoauthoritarianism (China)
- Pro-Republic of China
- Secession in China (Self-determination)
References
[edit]- ^ deBary (1983).
- ^ Dorn, James A. (2008). "Lao Tzu (c. 600 BC)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Lao Tzu (C. 600 B.C.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n169. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
- ^ Fung, Edmund S. K. (2010). The Intellectual Foundations of Chinese Modernity: Cultural and Political Thought in the Republican Era. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48823-5.
- ^ "China's Great Liberal of the 20th Century — Hu Shih Founder of Modern Chinese Language". Asia Society. 23 February 2022. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Tu, Hang (2025). Sentimental Republic: Chinese Intellectuals and the Maoist Past. Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 9780674297579.
- ^ Zhou, Zhiping (2012). 光焰不熄：胡适思想与现代中国. Beijing: Jiuzhou Press. p. 202.
- ^ Merle Goldman (2005). From Comrade to Citizen: The Struggle for Political Rights in China. Harvard University Press. pp. 128–160. ISBN 978-0-674-01890-7.
- ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (2002-01-14). "Wang Ruoshui, 75, Liberal Who Was Shunned in China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ Pomfret, John (2021-10-28). "Opinion | Liu Xiaobo showed the world that China has a great tradition of liberal thought". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ Zhang, Yu; Li, Jie; Martin-Liao, Tienchi; Mosher, Stacy; Worden, Andréa (2017). The Journey of Liu Xiaobo: From Dark Horse to Nobel Laureate. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-64012-224-6. JSTOR j.ctvxrpxhh.
- ^ "Qin Hui 秦晖 b.1953 | Centre for Chinese Research". ccr.ubc.ca. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ "Selected Writings of Li Shenzhi". Kettering Foundation. 2014-10-29. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ "Enlightenment and Chinese Civil Society: The Cases of Wang Yuanhua and Li Shenzhi | US-China Institute". china.usc.edu. Archived from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ Merle Goldman (2005). From Comrade to Citizen: The Struggle for Political Rights in China. Harvard University Press. pp. 128–160. ISBN 978-0-674-01890-7.
- ^ Song, Chenyang (2025). Nationalist and Popular Culture Practices on Social Media: A Digital Ethnography of Chinese Online Fandom Nationalists. Bielefeld: Transcript. ISBN 978-3-8376-7926-7.
- ^ "Keqiang ker-ching: How China's next prime minister keeps tabs on its economy". The Economist. 2010-12-09.
- ^ Jacobs, Andrew (5 November 2012). "As China Awaits New Leadership, Liberals Look to a Provincial Party Chief". New York Times.
- ^ Dorn, James A. (2008). "Lao Tzu (c. 600 BC)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Lao Tzu (C. 600 B.C.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n169. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
- ^ "Foreign News: Sun for Enlightenment". Time Magazine. 1944.
Reference and further reading
[edit]- Chang, C. (1952). The Third Force in China. New York: Bookman Associates.
- deBary, Wm. T. (1983), The Liberal Tradition in China, New York: Columbia University Press
- Fung, Edmund S. K. (2008). "Were Chinese Liberals Liberal? Reflections on the Understanding of Liberalism in Modern China". Pacific Affairs. 81 (4): 557–576. doi:10.5509/2008814557. JSTOR 40377628.
- Grieder, Jerome B. (1970). Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917-1937. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674412508.
- Jenco, Leigh K. (2010), "Chinese liberalism", in Bevir, Mark (ed.), Encyclopedia of Political Theory, London: Sage, pp. 164–166, ISBN 9781412958653. Submitted version at LSE Research Online: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/45300/
- Metzger, T. (2005). A Cloud Across the Pacific: Essays on the Clash between Chinese and Western Political Theories Today. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.